Jominy Hardenability test Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Jominy Hardenability test - Lab Report Example During testing, water was sprayed on one side of the steel bar when still hot so as to enhance a one-dimensional transfer of heat during cooling. Moving away from the end that was quenched made the temperature rate of change to be altered. The rate of cooling is observed being low as the temperature increases. When the hardness of the surface is measured as a distance function from the end, a profile of hardness was obtained. This profile can be applied to any specimen that is made from steel (Callister 4). Hardenability is, therefore different from hardness as hardness refers to a measure of the extent of resistance for a solid matter towards different types of permanent shapes whenever some amount of force is applied to the solid matter. The macroscopic hardness is hardness with intermolecular bonds that are strong. It occurs whenever the character of the solid matter under force appears to be complex. In this respect, there are a variety hardness measurements. These include indent ation hardness, scratch hardness, and rebound hardness (Bain 3).Comparing the experimental and published hardenability values, it is evidenced that the two pairs of curves are similar to each other. The curves have a similar gradient with just a few differences. These differences were brought about due to experimental errors. Some of the experimental errors came about due to air resistance, parallax, the heterogeneous trait of the calibration plate, faultiness of the Rockwell scale, and wrong calculation.... As widely cited, Hardenability is measured using the measurements of length. It serves the purpose of indicating how deep inside a material of given hardness can be obtained. This is one such vital property in welding and it is inversely proportional to the weldability of a material. This property can be demonstrated in a case where whenever a work piece that is made of steel is quenched; the contact area having water is suddenly cooled and it is often evened out of the given medium. On the contrary, the internal depth of the medium, fails to cool in a rapid in a rapid way and the work pieces inside, cool at a slow rate allowing the austenite to change into a structure besides martensite. The main effect is that the resulting component would be a work piece with different crystal structures, having a hard shell and a core considered being soft and hard for the entire structure. In this case, the softer core is a combination of cementite and ferrite such as the pearlite. In ferrous al loys such as steel, hardenability is a component of the carbon content and other different elements of the alloy. The other alloying elements have relatively important including the calculation using the equivalent material’s carbon content. In quenching, the fluid used facilitates the rate of cooling for the materials as a result of the changing thermal conductivity and specific heat. Components such as water and brine that have the ability to cool faster than oil and air (Callister 9). Apart from this, whenever a fluids are agitated, their rate of cooling is fast. In other cases, the part geometry influences the rate of cooling rate for two samples having different volumes. This means that the material

Interpersonal Relationship and True Friend Essay Example for Free

Interpersonal Relationship and True Friend Essay Tens of thousands, or one million? How many people will we meet in a whole lifetime, and how many of them do we have relationships with? Every person is born into a family without their choice, so they try to keep a good relationship with all family members to live happily, but sometimes it can be a misfortune for some people to get along with family members. However, we can choose to have good a relationship or not with acquaintances. Ive met with lots of people, sometimes I don’t get the chance to introduce myself, sometimes I had a good time with them, Sometimes I was disappointed by their behavior, and decided to say good-bye forever. There are many characteristics that determine whether a person is a friend or acquaintance. Considering my experiences, there are three types of acquaintances: true friends, ex-friends, and temporary acquaintances. I believe for a person to be considered a true friend they must be trustworthy and loyal. Someone whom will always stick by your side through thick and thin and would not sell you out. A true friend needs to be fair, caring, and loving. A true friend is someone who can make you smile or laugh; a person that will make you happy when you are sad. However, a true friend needs to be honest and must be able to tell you the truth even if it isn’t pleasant to hear. A true friend needs to be able to tell you something that you might not want to hear. At the same time, a true friend needs to be someone who wont try to change the way a person is and needs to be able to accept different personalities and characteristics. A true friend must know that it is very hard to gain trust; however. it is easy to lose it. People might say that a life without a true friend is no life at all. On the other hand there are people who I can’t say are friends anymore, so I consider them ex-friends. I was once close to them because of good times, humor, first impression, or similar interests, but later found out they used me, lied, and were selfish. I sometimes felt resentful, and realized I had better

Crude Drugs: Pharmacognostic Investigation

Crude Drugs: Pharmacognostic Investigation Introduction Microscopical examination and pharmacognostic evaluation of phyto drug may not apparently bear any direct co-relation with pharmacological and phytochemical evaluations. One should always remember that botanical identity of the phyto drug is an essential pre-requisite for undertaking the analysis of medicinal properties of any plant. If botanical identity of drug happens to be doubtful the entire phytochemical and pharmacological work on the plant becomes invalid. Thus the botanical identity of a crude drug threshold in the process of pharmacological investigations. Pharmacognostic Evaluation A systematic pharmacognostic study was carried out on the herbal drugs selected, to describe them more scientifically and to identify specific characteristics, if any, which will be helpful in the quality assurance and standardization of these plant drugs. Leaf Constants Determination of Stomatal Index Stomatal index is the percentage which the number of stomata form to the total number of epidermal cells, each stoma being counted as one cell. Stomatal index was be calculated by using the following equation. I = S X 100 E+S I=Stomatal index, S=No. of stomata per unit area, E=No. of epidermal cells in the same unit area. Middle part of the leaf was cleared by boiling with chloral hydrate solution. The lower epidermis was peeled by means of forceps and mounted on the slide with glycerine water. Camera lucida and drawing board were arranged for making drawings to scale. A square of 1mm was drawn by means of stage micrometer. The slide with cleared leaf (epidermis) was placed on the stage. The epidermal cells and stomata were traced out. The number of stomata present in 1sq mm area was counted. (Stomatal Number). The result for each of the ten fields was recorded and the average number of stomata per sq.mm was calculated. The stomatal index was determined using the above formula. The slides were prepared for Gynandropsis gynandra,(fig.2). The Stomatal number and Stomatal index values are given in Table.2. Determination of Vein-Islet Number Vein-islet is the small area of green tissue surrounded by the veinlets. The vein-islet number is the average number of vein-islet per square millimeter of a leaf surface. It is determined by counting the number of vein-islets in an area of 4 sq.mm of the central part of the leaf between the midrib and the margin. A portion of leaf was cleaned by boiling in chloral hydrate solution for about thirty minutes and slide was prepared. Camera lucida and drawing board were arranged for making drawings to scale. Stage micrometer was arranged on the microscope and using 16 mm objective, a line was drawn equivalent to 1 mm as seen through the microscope. A square was constructed on this line. The patter was moved so that the square is seen in the eye piece, in the centre of the field. The slide with the cleared leaf epidermis was placed on the stage. The veins which are included within the square were traced off, completing the outlines of those islets which overlap adjacent sides of the square. The number of vein islets in 1sq mm was counted. (The slides were prepared for Gynandropsis gynandra,(fig.5)). The average number of vein islets in the four adjoining squares gave. The Vein islet number.(Table -3) Determination of Palisade Ratio Palisade ratio is the average number of palisade cells beneath one epidermal cell of a leaf. It is determined by counting the palisade cells beneath four continuous epidermal cells. A piece of the leaf was cleared by boiling in chloral hydrate solution for about thirty minutes and slide was prepared. Camera lucida and drawing board were arranged for making drawings to scale. Using 4mm objective, the outlines of four cells of the epidermis were traced off. The palisade layer was focussed and sufficient cells were traced off to cover the tracings of the epidermal cells. The outlines of those palisade cells which are intersected by the epidermal walls, were completed. The palisade cells under the four epidermal cells were counted. The average number of cells beneath a single epidermal cell was calculated. (The slides were prepared for Gynandropsis gynandra,(fig.8). The determination was repeated for five groups of four epidermal cells from different parts of the leaf. The average of the results gave the palisade ratio. (Table-4) Histology of Gynandropsis gynandra: Midrib of Leaf: The transverse section of midrib of Gynandropsis gynandra Linn comprises of the epidermis, cortex, endodermis and vascular bundles. (fig.13) Upper epidermis: Comprises of barrel shaped cells which are closely packed, devoid of chloroplast and possess glandular trichomes. Cortex: Below the epidermis layers of cortical cells are present which are made up of polygonal parenchymatous cells. Endodermis: Endodermis is made up of rectangular barrel shaped cells with casparian thickenings. Pericycle: Below the endodermis three layered pericycle is present which is made up of parenchymatous cells. Vascular Bundles: A four to five layered phloem tissue is present that is made up of thinwalled phloem parenchymatous cells and phloem companion cells. Xylem tissue is made up of xylem elements, xylem parenchyma and xylem companion cells. Lower Epidermis: Is made up of polygonal cells which are closely packed together. 2.4.2 Stem: Transverse section of Gynandropsis gynandra Linn stem comprises of epidermis, exodermis, cortex, endodermis and vascular bundles. (fig.14) Epidermis: External layer with tightly joined cells that are devoid of stomata. This layer is usually termed as rhizodermis. It is also known as epiblema. This layer with covering trichomes dries and its place is taken by typical secondary boundary tissue called exodermis having glandular trichomes. Exodermis: This layer is present below the epidermis and is often regarded as a protective layer. The walls of the cells become suberized. Eames, in 1947, regarded this as hypodermis; Foster and Guttenberg, in 1943, gave it the name exodermis because of the presence of suberin in its walls. The suberin lamella develop on the inner side of the primary wall. They differ from cork cells since they contain protoplasmic contents. Cortex: The cortex is comparatively simple in histology and is generally composed of thin walled cells with lots of intercellular spaces. The cells are arranged in concentric layers with cells in each layer alternating with others. Endodermis: It is a distinct layer of cells differentiated from the innermost layer of cortex. The layer is uniseriate, made up of barrel shaped cells. Casparian strips are present radially. Pericycle: Below the endodermis, a few layers of parenchymatous cells are present which make up the pericycle. Vascular Bundles: The stem exhibits secondary growth, hence a complete ring of cambium is formed. A distinct secondary phloem is visible on the outer side. There is outer fascicular cambium which is made of parenchymatous cells. The phloem consists of phloem fibres, sieve tubes and companion cells. The secondary xylem shows distinct vessels and forms a continuous band interrupted here and there by narrow rays which are uniseriate. The secondary xylem constitutes a large portion of the bundles; it is present on the inner side and consists of vessels with simple perforated tracheids with a few simple pits on radial walls and some xylem parenchyma. Pith: Thin walled or thick walled cells filled with tannin and crystals of gypsum constitute the small pith. Stomata: Anisocytic or cruciferous (unequal) type of stomata which occurs in Capparadaceae family. The stoma is usually surrounded by three or four subsidiary cells, one of which is markedly smaller than the others. (fig.15) Physico Chemical Evaluation of Crude Drugs Extractive Values Extractive values are useful for evaluation of crude drugs and give an idea about the nature of chemical constituents present in them. The amount of extractive a drug yields to a given solvent is often an approximate measure of a certain constituent or group of related constituents the drug contains. In some cases the amount of a certain constituent or group of related constituents the drug contains, in some cases the amount of drug soluble in a given solvent is an index of its purity. The solvent used for extraction should be in a position to dissolve quantities of substances desired. Determination of Alcohol Soluble Extractive 5 g of macerated and air-dried coarse powder of drug was mixed with 100 ml of 95% alcohol in a closed flask and kept for 24 hours, shaking frequently during the first 6 hours and then allowed to stand for 18 hours. Thereafter, it was filtered rapidly taking precautions against loss of the solvent. About 25 ml of the filtrate was evaporated to dryness in a tared, flat-bottomed shallow dish, dried at 105o C and weighed. The percentage of alcohol-soluble extractive was calculated with reference to the air-dried drug. Determination of Water Soluble Extractive Proceeded as directed for the determination of alcohol soluble extractive, using chloroform water I.P. as a solvent. Determination of Chloroform Soluble Extractive Proceeded as directed for the determination of alcohol soluble extractive, using chloroform as solvent. Determination of Petroleum Ether Soluble Extractive Proceeded as directed for the determination of alcohol soluble extractive, using petroleum ether as a solvent. (Table 6) Loss On Drying About 5 g of powder was accurately weighed, placed in a petri-dish and dried in hot-air oven at 110Â ° C for four hours. After cooling, it was placed in a desiccator. The loss in weight was recorded. This was repeated till constant weight was obtained and % Loss on Drying was calculated with reference to the air-dried drug. (Table 7) Determination of Ash Values Ash values are helpful in determining the quality and purity of crude drugs in powdered form. Ashing involves an oxidation of the components of the product. The total ash usually consists of inorganic radicals like carbonates, phosphates, silicates and silica of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium. A high ash value is indicative of contamination, substitution or adulteration. Sometimes, inorganic variables like calcium oxalate, silica, carbonate content of crude drug affects total ash values; such variables are then removed by treating with acid (as they are soluble in hydrochloric acid) and then acid-insoluble ash value is determined. Ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid is the residue obtained after extracting the total ash with hydrochloric acid. This acid-insoluble ash value particularly indicates contamination with silicious materials like earth or sand. Water-soluble ash is that part of the total ash content which is soluble in water. It is a good indicator of either previous extraction of water soluble salts in the drug or incorrect preparation. For the determination of various ash values viz. total ash, acid-insoluble ash, water-soluble ash, the shade dried parts of the selected plant materials were powdered and passed through sieve no:40 and studies were carried out. The values vary within fairly wide limits and is therefore an important parameter for the purpose of evaluation of crude drugs. Determination of Total Ash A flat, thin porcelain crucible was weighed and ignited. About 2 g of the powdered drug was taken into the crucible. The crucible was incinerated at temperatures not exceeding 4500C, until free from carbon.The crucible was cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The procedure was repeated to get constant weight.The percentage of total ash was calculated with reference to the air dried drug. (Table No.8) Determination of Acid-insoluble Ash The total ash obtained was boiled with 25 ml of 2 M hydrochloric acid for 5mins. The insoluble ash was collected on an ashless filter paper and washed with hot water. The insoluble ash was transferred to a pre-weighed silica crucible, ignited, cooled, weighed and procedure was repeated to get constant weight. The percentage of Acid-insoluble ash of the crude drug was calculated with reference to the air-dried sample of the crude drug. (Table No.9) Determination of Water-soluble Ash The total ash obtained was boiled in 25 ml chloroform water for five minutes. The insoluble ash was collected on an ashless filter paper and washed with hot water. The insoluble ash was transferred into pre-weighed silica crucible, ignited for 15 minutes at a temperature not exceeding 450o C. The crucible was cooled, weighed and the procedure was repeated to get constant weight .Weight of the insoluble matter was subtracted from the weight of the total ash. The difference of weight was considered as the water-soluble ash. The percentage of water-soluble ash was determined with reference to the air-dried drug. (Table No.10) Fluorescence analysis of the crude drugs: Many crude drugs show fluorescence when the sample is exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Evaluation of crude drugs based on fluorescence in daylight is not much used, as it is usually unreliable due to the weakness of the fluorescence effect. Fluorescence lamps (366 nm) are fitted with suitable filters, which eliminates visible radiation from the lamp and transmits ultraviolet radiation of definite wavelength. Several crude drugs show characteristic fluorescence useful for their evaluation. (Table No.11) Total Solid Content About 5 g of extract was accurately weighed in a petri-dish and kept in a hot-air oven and maintained at 110Â °C for four hours. After cooling, the loss in weight was recorded. This procedure was repeated till constant weight was obtained. (Table No. 12) Total solid content (%) = Loss in weight x 100/W W = Weight of the extract in grams Extraction Maceration The powdered materials were extracted with alcohol (95%) by cold maceration method. Weighed quantity of powdered crude drugs were taken into round bottom flasks with alcohol, in the drug to solvent ratio 1:3 and kept for maceration for a period of 7 days. Finally the flask was left undisturbed for 12 hrs and then the contents were shaker and filtered through Whatman filter paper No.1. The marc was re-extracted with drug solvent ratio of 1:2. The extracts were combined and concentrated in a rotary flash evaporator, till free from solvent. The extracts, thus obtained were stored in a refrigerator at 40C until used. (Table No.13) Qualitative Phytochemical Screening A spectrum of natural compounds like alkaloids, glycosides, tannis, essential oils and other similar secondary metabolites which exert physiological activity are synthesized in the plant, in addition to the carbohydrates, proteins and lipids utilized by man as food articles. A systematic and complete study of crude drugs should include a thorough investigation of both primary and secondary metabolites derived as a result of plant metabolism. The different qualitative chemical tests are to be performed for establishing profile of a given extract/fraction for its nature of chemical composition. The following tests were carried out on the extracts to detect various phytoconstituents present in them. Detection of Alkaloids About 50 mg of solvent free extract was stirred with little quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid and filtered. The filtrate was tested carefully with various alkaloid tests viz., Mayers Test, Wagners Test, Hagers Test, Dragendroffs Test Detection of Carbohydrates About 100mg of the extract was dissolved in 5 ml of distilled water and filtered. The presence of carbohydrates were tested by Molischs Test, Fehlings Test, Barfoeds Test and Benedicts Test Detection of Glycosides For detection of glycosides, about 50 mg of extract was hydrolyzed with concentrated hydrochloric acid for 2 hrs on a water bath, filtered and the hydrolysate was subjected to the Glycoside testa viz., Borntragers Test, Legals Test, Detection of Saponins Foam or Froth Test Detection of Proteins and Amino Acids About 100 mg of extract was dissolved in 10 ml of distilled water and filtered through Whatmann No.1 filter paper and the filtrate was subjected to tests for proteins and amino acids. Viz., Millons Test, Biuret Test, Ninhydrin Test Detection of Phytosterols and triterpenoids: Tested by Libermann Burchards and Salkwoski test Detection of Phenolic Compounds and Tannins Tested by Ferric chloride test, Gelatin test, Lead acetate test, Alkaline reagents, and Shinoda test or Magnesium Hydrochloric acid reduction Thin Layer Chromatography Thin Layer Chromatography of extracts was done by using standard procedures and is mainly used for the detection of the nature of phytoconstituents present. Thin Layer Chromatography is a very effective technique for the separation of chemical constituents of an extract and for their identification. The history of TLC has been reviewed by various authors. A major breakthrough in this field was the commercial availability of convenient precoated plates in the early 70s Pharmacopoeias are increasingly employing this technique for assessing the quality and purity of compounds of both synthetic and natural origin. TLC profiles developed for an extract from a define solvent system and other parameters could be used as a fingerprint in comparative qualitative evaluation of herbal drugs. The trend of evaluation by this method is becoming popular in view of its simplicity and reproducibility. TLC is an important analytical tool in the separation, identification and estimation of different classes of natural products. In this technique, the different components are separated by the differential migration of solute between two phases a stationary phase and a mobile phase. Here, the principle of separation is adsorption and the stationary phase acts as an adsorbent. Depending on the particular type of stationary phase, its preparation and use with different solvents, separation can be achieved on the basis of partition or a combination of partition and adsorption. Preparation of Plates 100 g of Silica gel-G was weighed and made into a homogenous suspension with 200 ml of distilled water to form aslurry. The slurry was poured into a TLC applicator, which was adjusted to 0.25 mm thickness on flat glass plate of different dimensions (10 x 2, 10 x 5, 20 x 5, 20 x 10 cm etc.). The coated plates were allowed to dry in air, followed by heating at 100 105o C for 1 hour, cooled and stored in a dry atmosphere to protect from moisture. Before using, the plates were activated by heating at 100o C for 10 minutes. Detection of Steroids / Triterpenoids and their Glycosides Solvent systems used: Ethyl acetate: Methanol : Water 81 : 11 : 8 Ethyl acetate: Methanol : Water 75 : 15 : 10 Chloroform : Methanol : Water 70 : 30 : 4 Chloroform : Methanol : Water 64 : 50 : 10 n-Butanol :Acetic acid: Water 4 : 1 : 5 (upper phase) Benzene : Ethyl acetate 90 : 10, 80 : 20, 50 : 50 Chloroform : Methanol 95 : 5, 90 : 10, 80 : 20 Ethyl acetate: Methanol 90 : 10, 80 : 20, 50 : 50 Spray Reagents: 1) Vanillin Sulphuric acid (VS) reagent Solution I : 5% ethanolic sulphuric acid Solution II : 1% ethanolic vanillin The developed TLC plate was sprayed with 10 ml of solution I, followed immediately by 5-10 ml of solution II, then heate for 5-10 minutes at 100o C under observation. steroids / triterpenoids and their glycosides give blue, blue violet or pink colored spots. 2) Vanillin Phosphoric acid (VPA) reagent Solution a: 1 gm vanillin dissolved in 100 ml of 50% phosphoric acid Solution b: 2 parts 24 % phosphoric acid and 8 parts 2% ethanolic Vanillic acid After spraying with either solution a or b, the plate was heated for 10 minutes at 100o C Red Violet colour indicates the presence of steroids / triterpenoids and their glycosides. 3) Antimony (III) chloride reagent 20% solution of antimony (III) chloride The developed TLC plate was sprayed with reagent and then heated for 5-6 minutes at 100o C Red violet color in visible light; red violet, blue and green fluorescence in UV at 365 nm indicates the presence of steroids / triterpenoids and their glycosides. 4) Anisaldehyde sulphuric acid reagent 0.5 ml of anisaldehyde was mixed with 10 ml glacial acetic acid, followed by 85 ml of methanol and 5 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid, in that order. The developed TLC plate was sprayed with reagent, heated at 100o C for 5 10 minutes. steroids / triterpenoids and their glycosides give blue, blue violet or pink coloured spots. Detection of Flavonoids and their Glycosides Solvent systems used: Chloroform : Methanol 80:20, 70:30, 50:50 Ethyl acetate : Methanol: Water 81:11:8 n- Butanol : Acetic acid : Water 4 : 1 : 5 (upper phase) Ethyl acetate: Formic acid: Glacial acetic acid: water 100:11:11:27 Ethyl acetate: Formic acid: Glacial acetic acid: Ethyl methyl ketone: Water 50:7:3:30:10 Detection The developed TLC plate was observed in visible light and in UV at 365 nm. Flavonoids and their glycosides appear as yellow, dark blue, orange zones / spots. The color gets intensified on exposure of the plates to ammonia vapors. Detection of Alkaloids Solvent systems used Benzene : Ethyl acetate : Diethylamine 6:3:1 Toluene: Ethyl acetate: Formic acid 5:4:1 Detection: Dragendorffs reagent The developed TLC plate was sprayed with reagent and then heated for 5-6 minutes at 1000C, spot will be developed.

Generation and Culture in Doce cuentos peregrinos Essay -- Garcia Marq

  Ã‚  Ã‚   An enormous sea serpent nailed by the neck to the door frame is also nailed at the beginning of Gabriel Garcia Marquez's "El verano felà ­z de la Seà ±ora Forbes" from his novel "Doce cuentos peregrinos." This short story is an eloquent representation of the unconscious state of mind of dominance in which the result of previous concepts of life and costumes achieved are just vague figures trying to make up a non-abstract drawing that represent power. Generations and cultures are being confronted, characteristic of a dense ambient in which two different manners of applying the rules of society provoke an ironic reaction of rebellion that apply to a macrocosm. The title means "Miss Forbes's summer of happiness." The time of the year, the island surrounded by the dark blue sea, together with Miss Forbes's summer, narrate the environment in which the story is developed. The house is very small, and this helps to increase the tension that prevails from the start of the stor y to the end. There is a lot of repression. Many of the things are overwhelmed with rightness to agree with the normal kind of person that is used to live in an open society free of all kinds of discrepancies and orthodox methods of life. "Negra y fosforecente" (189) is the first impression that the story gives to the reader. This anticipates the darkness and at the same time vivid aspect that the story is going to have by describing the sea serpent on the door. The intense terror of seeing the "animal crucificado" (189) turns to a bigger matter that is entitled as the beginning of the long journey of hell that society is living in. The younger kid thinks that the moray "Tenà ­a ojos de gente" (191). He was still frightened; he saw the antecedents and consequenc... ...en once the rebellion took place. A courageous society takes all responsibility from its back whenever a major level goes down. As Garcia Marquez suggests, this determines a stabilized level of power where distinctions are to be created again to be taken to a macrocosm, and prove that rules, even in the highest level of hierarchy may be mistaken or not proper to the generation or culture that the society is living in.    Works Cited and Consulted Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. Doce cuentos peregrinos. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1992. Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. Strange Pilgrims: Twelve stories by Gabriel Garcia Marquez. Trans. Edith Grossman. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993. Molinario, Nina L. Foucault, feminism and power: Reading Esther Tusquets. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press; London; Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1991. Generation and Culture in Doce cuentos peregrinos Essay -- Garcia Marq   Ã‚  Ã‚   An enormous sea serpent nailed by the neck to the door frame is also nailed at the beginning of Gabriel Garcia Marquez's "El verano felà ­z de la Seà ±ora Forbes" from his novel "Doce cuentos peregrinos." This short story is an eloquent representation of the unconscious state of mind of dominance in which the result of previous concepts of life and costumes achieved are just vague figures trying to make up a non-abstract drawing that represent power. Generations and cultures are being confronted, characteristic of a dense ambient in which two different manners of applying the rules of society provoke an ironic reaction of rebellion that apply to a macrocosm. The title means "Miss Forbes's summer of happiness." The time of the year, the island surrounded by the dark blue sea, together with Miss Forbes's summer, narrate the environment in which the story is developed. The house is very small, and this helps to increase the tension that prevails from the start of the stor y to the end. There is a lot of repression. Many of the things are overwhelmed with rightness to agree with the normal kind of person that is used to live in an open society free of all kinds of discrepancies and orthodox methods of life. "Negra y fosforecente" (189) is the first impression that the story gives to the reader. This anticipates the darkness and at the same time vivid aspect that the story is going to have by describing the sea serpent on the door. The intense terror of seeing the "animal crucificado" (189) turns to a bigger matter that is entitled as the beginning of the long journey of hell that society is living in. The younger kid thinks that the moray "Tenà ­a ojos de gente" (191). He was still frightened; he saw the antecedents and consequenc... ...en once the rebellion took place. A courageous society takes all responsibility from its back whenever a major level goes down. As Garcia Marquez suggests, this determines a stabilized level of power where distinctions are to be created again to be taken to a macrocosm, and prove that rules, even in the highest level of hierarchy may be mistaken or not proper to the generation or culture that the society is living in.    Works Cited and Consulted Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. Doce cuentos peregrinos. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1992. Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. Strange Pilgrims: Twelve stories by Gabriel Garcia Marquez. Trans. Edith Grossman. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993. Molinario, Nina L. Foucault, feminism and power: Reading Esther Tusquets. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press; London; Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1991.

Donne as a Metaphysical Poet Essay

Introduction During the past forty years there have been two major theories of language learning by children. But there are two major schools of thought known as, ‘Behaviorists’ and ‘Mentalists’. One school is of the view that language learning is entirely the product of experience and that our environment affects all of us. Others have suggested that everybody has an innate language learning mechanism. Let us discovery with the help of these two schools of thought that how do children acquire their mother tongue. How do they grow up linguistically and learn to handle the stylistics varieties of their mother tongue? How much of the linguistics system they are born with and how much do they discover from their exposure to language? a) The Behaviorist School B.F. Skinner and his followers are known as behaviorist. According to them language learning is process known as operant conditioning. Conditioned Behavior is behavior which is the result of repeated training. Operant means that it is voluntary behavior, it is result of learner’s own free will, and it is not forced by any outside person or thing. The learner demonstrates the new behavior first as a response to a system of reward or punishment, and finally as an automatic response. In order to prove their theory they conducted an experiment. EXPERIMENT They put a rat in a box containing a bar. If it presses a bar, it is rewarded with a pellet of food. Nothing forces it to press the bar. The first time it probably does so accidentally. When the rat finds that the food arrives, it presses the bar again. Eventually it finds that if it is hungry it can obtain food by pressing the bar. Then task is made more difficult. The rat only gets rewarded if it presses the bar while a light is flashing. At first rat is puzzled. Eventually it learns the trick. Then the task is made more difficult again. This time the rat only receives food if it presses the bar a certain number of times. After initial confusion it learns to do this also. And so on, and so on. Operant condition can be summarized thus STIMULUS RESPONSE REINFORCEMENT REPETITION In operant conditioned, reinforcement plays a vital role. There are two kinds of reinforcement: A) Positive Reinforcement Praise and rewards are positive reinforcement. Experiments have shown that positive reinforcement works much better in bringing about good learning. B) Negative Reinforcement Rebukes and punishments are negative reinforcement. The behaviorists also claim that we learn language by imitation and association. For example, a young child hears the word â€Å"water† with the actual thing. He then makes this sound himself, imitating what he has heard. His parents are pleased that he has learnt another word and so his response is reinforced. The thoughts of behaviorist school can well be understood according to following tree diagram. The Behaviorist School Language learning is Positive Imitation Operant conditioning and and Negative Association Reinforcement Noam Chomsky explicitly rejects the behaviorists’ position that language should be thought of as verbal behavior, arguing that it should be thought of as knowledge held by those who use language. Chomsky suggests that the learner of any language has an inbuilt learning capacity for language that enables each learner to construct a kind of personal theory or set of rules about the language based on very limited exposure to language. b) The Mentalist School Chomsky and his mentalist followers claim that a child learns his first language through cognitive learning. They claim that language is governed by rules, and is not a haphazard thing, as Skinner and his followers would claim. According to Chomsky, the child is born with a mental capacity for working out the underlying system to the jumble of sounds which he hears. He constructs his own grammar’ and imposes it on all the sounds reaching his brain. This mental grammar is part of his cognitive framework, and nothing he hears is stored in his brain until he has matched it against what he already knows and found a ‘correct’ place for it within this framework. Chomsky argues that language is so complex that it is almost incredible that it can be acquired by a child in so short a time. He says that a child is born with some innate mental capacity which helps the child to process all the language which he hears. This is called the Language Acquisition Device, and he saws it as comprising a special area of the brain whose only function was the processing of language. This function, he argues, is quite separate from any other mental capacity which the child has. When Chomsky talks about ‘rules’, he means the unconscious rules in a child’s mind these rules enables him to make grammatical sentences in his own language. Chomsky does not mean that a child can describes these rules explicitly. For example, a four or five year old child can produce a sentence like I have done my work; he can do that because he has a ‘mental grammar’ which enables him to form correct present perfect structures and also to use such structures in the right and appropriate situations. But he is unable to define the formation of present perfect tense. The thoughts of Mentalists can well be understood with the help of the following tree diagram. The Mentalists School Language learning Input Mental grammar Is an (own rules) Innate ability LAD Grammatical Output sentences Both the schools have said significant things, yet neither is perfect. The mentalists’ emphasis on the rule-learning is over enthusiastic, and the behaviorists’ rejection of meaning is entirely unjust. Language acquisition seems to be a process both of analogy and application, both nature and nurture. The differences between the empiricists approach and that of the rationalist can be summarized in the following manner: BEHAVIOURISTS APPROACH MENTALIST APPROACH Conclusion This comparative study makes one thing clear: nature and nurture, analogy and application, practice and exposure are important. Innate potentialities lay down the framework. Within this framework, there is wide variation depending on the environment. The kind of language that children ultimately grow into shaped by the culture-based responses of the family, if not in a way that can be called imitation, then at least in terms of things the child chooses to do with its language. But we should be wary of the idea that all children experience the same practices and follow the same development path as they grow into their language. Having been exposed to a small number of utterances, the child begins to extract the principles underlying the utterances and compose new utterances of his own. This is the way every child grammar to communicate in an intelligent manner. He makes mistakes and produces ungrammatical sentences. His elders correct him; he feeds the information into his mini-grammar, modifies some of the rules, and again produces new utterances. In a period of about four years, he is able to master and internalize all the essential rules of language. This is a proof that a child’s own rules of grammar are more important to him than mere imitation.

My Friend- Donna

It’s really fantastic to have friends because you can never get more amused than by communicating with them, and learning every little feature of their characters. Sometimes, they may seem annoying and tiresome, but overall you can stop being amazed at how nice those little annoying features make a person, and you don’t want to change them. My friend Donna is a great example of such a character. Her little flaws just make her even more perfect. Donna is simply too smart. Once you start talking to her, you realize that no matter how much you learn, she will always beat you. Can there be anything more annoying than realizing how inferior you are in comparison with her? Another annoying feature you notice at once is that Donna simply can’t stop making witty comments about anything she doesn’t approve of, and she keeps adding and adding more comments. One should be ready for lots of teasing if he wears some weird-looking hat, or didn’t have time to comb his hair. Donna simply can’t stop. She isn’t balanced at all. She has to point at everything what she finds funny and strange. Besides, Donna likes to give advice whenever she needs and doesn’t need to do that. She thinks she analyzes everything so much better than anyone else does, so she wants to give advice to the whole world on any subject: when the best time to attend the hair-dresser is, how to budget money to get enough savings for a new super short dress, what kind of house to build, how to administer a beauty salon, what color of makeup to buy in this season. Donna drives people really crazy with her advice on any point. But perhaps her most annoying feature is that she is too crazy about herself. She wants to attract the attention to herself every second. Every single spare minute she looks in the mirror, and seems to admire the reflection too much. From time to time people have to wonder whether she is going to act in movies very soon- it is very possible she will finally achieve that. Donna just attracts attention to herself in all the situations, even when it’s not appropriate at all. Have you heard stories about how parties go when Donna arrives? Let me tell you one. Imagine everybody assembled at the birthday party, talking, eating, drinking, congratulating the birthday-boy, and not worrying about anything. Then the door opens, and Donna not walks but flies in. That’s her usual manner of walking- flying as if she has a couple of eagles carrying her on their wings. The world gets turned upside down at the party right away after Donna’s arrival. Everybody gets shut up, even the guy having a birthday party. Nobody even notices him anymore because the â€Å"real† star has arrived, and everybody is almost feeling her radiant beams. The party becomes completely centralized in Donna’s hands. Donna talks about everything what comes into her mind, and it’s always too interesting. It drives everyone crazy because Donna gets all the attention but nothing can be done about that. Here she is already checking the food supply and arranging on the telephone the order of some more food and drinks for the party because she sees that something is missing. She is running around the house bringing new dishes in. She invents a hundred different contests to entertain the guests at the party. She is telling anecdotes and making everyone fall off their chairs of too much laughing. One will never forget a birthday party with the participation of Donna. You might think she is crazy for having as much energy as a jet aircraft, but that is just the way she is. You will definitely find it annoying how she wants the world to turn around her- but she is really worth that! Have you ever seen Donna shopping in the store for her next party? That’s a show to see. It looks as if she is getting ready for her first ball like girls were getting ready in England many centuries ago. At that time every girl thought that during the first ball she will meet her future husband. She had to prepare very carefully. Donna is the same way, but about every party. Everything needs to be too perfect from her point of view. She will not buy a dress unless it fits her like a princess. Donna can waste hours and go from one store to another driving sales girls crazy with her requests, but she will eventually find something what will make her a goddess. The sales girls will be sweating from carrying more and more clothes to Donna to try. But she doesn’t care how many items she has to try on. She stands near the mirror and gazes at herself for as much time as she wants. Donna knows will get her dream-dress this way or another. One always gets amazed where she finds all that stuff, but she somehow does. It’s really annoying that Donna wants everything in her life to be so perfect. However, it makes her really cute. She is just different from others. Donna is certainly an outstanding character. Even though some of her features are really annoying, they seem that way to many people only because they envy her. They envy Donna’s industriousness, her thirst for knowledge and perfection, and her insatiable energy. Some people even suspect she is out of this world because she is never sad, always in a great mood, and willing to change everything what she considers not perfect enough. Everybody who knows Donna well is already used to those features of her character, and simply neglects those which seem annoying in many ways. There are no perfect people in the world. That is why it’s just necessary to take people the way they are. Donna definitely rings sunshine into the world. Everybody who knows her well can’t get enough of her. Whenever she is around, there is no stop for jokes and laugh. Nobody can be sad. If you ever want to get a smile on your face, just go see my friend Donna.

Spanish Phrases That Refer to Animals

Spanish Phrases That Refer to Animals Just as the phrase raining cats and dogs doesnt have much to do with the four-legged creatures, neither does the Spanish phrase levantar la liebre have much to do with hares - it has to do with figuratively exposing or shedding light on something. It seems that whatever the language, we like to talk about animals even when were really talking about something else. Here are more than a dozen Spanish phrases, most of them colloquial, that include the names of animals. You can communicate more like a native speaker if you use these phrases - just dont understand or translate them too literally! Caballo (Horse) Someone or something trying to do or be two different things at once can be said to be a caballo entre (like a horse between) those things. Turquà ­a est a caballo entre dos mundos: geogrficamente se ubica entre Europa y Asia, y culturalmente se encuentra desgarrada entre el islam y el Occidente. (Turkey has its feet planted in two worlds: Geographically it is located between Europe and Asia, and culturally it is torn between Islam and the West.) Cabra (Goat) Someone who is crazy, strange or weird can be said to be como una cabra (like a goat). Seguro que pensaron que estaba como una cabra. (Im sure they thought I was loony.) Elefante (Elephant) Como un elefante en una cacharrerà ­a (like an elephant in a pottery shop) is the equivalent of like a bull in a china shop. No entres como un elefante en una cacharrerà ­a. Tà ³mate tu tiempo e intenta recabar la informacià ³n necesaria para conocer la empresa. (Dont start out like a bull in a china shop. Take your time and try to gather the information needed to understand the business.) Gato (Cat) Someone who is extremely lucky by avoiding or recovering quickly from disasters can be said to tener ms vidas que un gato (have more lives than a cat). El joven ciclista demostrà ³ que posee ms vidas que un gato. (The young bicyclist showed he may get knocked down but is never out.) Incidentally, while we often talk about cats having nine lives, Spanish speakers seem to think they have seven or nine. If theres a hidden or secret reason for something occurring, we might say aquà ­ hay gato encerrado (here there is an enclosed cat). Sometimes the phrase is the equivalent of theres something fishy going on. The phrase may have come from centuries ago when money was sometimes hidden in a small bag made of cats fur. Supongo que Pablo se daba cuenta de que aquà ­ habà ­a gato encerrado, pero no sabà ­a nada de nuestro secreto. (I suppose that Pablo noticed that something unusual was happening, but he didnt know anything about our secret.) To do something daring or risky - often when nobody else is willing - is to ponerle el cascabel al gato (put the bell on the cat). Similar expressions in English include to take the plunge or to stick ones neck out. This phrase is quite common in political contexts. Despuà ©s de seis aà ±os de dudas, indecisiones, explicaciones y excusas, el presidente finalmente le puso el cascabel al gato. (After six years of hesitation, indecision, explanations, and excuses, the president finally took the plunge.) Liebre (Hare) Hares were once far more valuable than cats, so dar gato por liebre or meter gato por liebre (providing a cat instead of a hare) came to mean to swindle or dupe someone. Me dieron gato por liebre cuando intentà © comprar mi mà ³vil por internet. (They ripped me off when I tried to buy my cellphone online.) To lift the hare, levantar la liebre, is to reveal a secret or something that had not been known. In English we might let the cat out of the bag. Era la atleta que levantà ³ la liebre del dopaje. (She was the athlete who who exposed the secretive practice of doping.) Lince (Lynx) If someone can see extremely well or is very good at noticing fine details, you can say that person has the vista de lince (lynxs eyesight) or ojo de lince (lynxs eye). Its just as we can talk about someone being or having an eagle eye. The word for eagle, guila, works in these phrases as well. Uno de los voluntarios, que tenà ­a un ojo de lince, descubrià ³ el abrigo de la nià ±a en el bosque. (One of the volunteers, who had eagle eyes, found the girls raincoat in the forest.) Perro (Dog) If you believe someone is lying to you - or, colloquially, pulling your leg - you can respond with a otro perro con ese hueso (to another dog with that bone).  ¿Me dices que estudiaste toda la noche?  ¡A otro perro con ese hueso! (Youre telling me you studied all night? Baloney!) Pollo (Chicken) In English, you might sweat like a hog, but in Spanish its sweating like a chicken, sudar como un pollo. Esa noche sudà © como un pollo. Creo que perdà ­ dos kilos. (That night I sweated like a pig. I think I lost 2 kilograms.) In Colombia, a popular sauce-covered chicken dish is known as pollo sudado (sweated chicken). Tortuga (Turtle) In English, if were slow we might do something at a snails pace, but in Spanish its a turtles pace, a paso de tortuga. Los trabajos para la construccià ³n del nuevo mercado pà ºblico marchan a paso de tortuga. (Work toward the construction of the new public market is proceeding at a snails pace.) Tigre (Tigre) If something is more of the same to the point where it becomes irrelevant or nearly so, you can call it one more stripe for the tiger, una raya ms al tigre or una mancha ms al tigre. Aunque para muchos es simplemente una raya ms al tigre, me importa mucho su compromiso. (Although for many it doesnt make much difference, her promise matters a lot to me.)