Gender and ICT (Information and Communication Technology) Programs

Gender and ICT (Information and Communication Technology) Programs Introduction Information and communication technology continues to be adopted, developed, and integrated in everyday life all over the world by all generations. However, there has been continuous under-representation of women entering into Information and Communication Technology (ICT) programs. This under-representation is a long-standing problem that has been worsening over time, with the society, governments, and institutions coming up with a variety of possible causes and solutions.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Gender and ICT (Information and Communication Technology) Programs specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Under-representation has even become rampant in societies that have integrated information and communication technology in school curriculum from the lowest level of pre-school. The most visible indicator of under-representation of women in information and communication technology is the low percenta ge of enrolment in tertiary ICT programs by women. More so, women and men have a wide gap in technology education and exposure to technology (Anderson, 2007, pg 78). Information and communication technology variance between men and women is tied to segregation and status differences that result in reduction in women’s access to knowledge and income resources. The issue revolves around gender inequality in all aspects of social works where women are regarded and treated as less superior to men and even subjects in extreme cases. Women’s limited access to knowledge and income resources compared to men is a considerable factor that causes under-representation of women in adoption and advancement in information and communication technology. The gap between the status of women and that of men is referred to as gender spaces hindering women from knowledge used by men in reproducing income resource power and privileges of advancement knowledge (Buskens Webb, 2009, pg 77) Sum mary article 1 Universities seek to improve information and communication technology courses with respect to gender representation in the study programmes, given the fact that female students are adversely under-represented in male dominated areas such as information and communication technology and mathematics. Female students are proved to perform better than their male counterparts in information and communication technology courses, even though gender differences have a direct relation to different skills and the way people think and carry out their operations. Profession and education in information and communication technology is represented by a small percentage of women despite female predominance in general undergraduate courses. Gender inequality in information and communication technology can be broadly viewed to emanate from the processes of recruitment, retention and the advancement of women in the sector. Universities face many challenges in retaining female students i n information and communication technology courses, with first year students recording the highest rate of dropout.Advertising Looking for assessment on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This is attributed to the fact that tertiary ICT enrolments depend on student’s strong foundation of mathematics in secondary and primary schools, which has been affected by the negative view of the subject by most female students. Gender difference in mathematical ability, interest, and perception has been the root cause of under-representation of women in male dominated fields. Gender imbalance in ICT can also be as a result of student motivation and background of pre-knowledge in a particular program, where individual’s internal conditions activates behavior and desire then direct him towards a goal. The motivation may be intrinsic or extrinsic academic orientation that arises from social influences suc h as those from parents, relatives, and friends. Academic extrinsic orientation directs students to successfully complete the educational system and test their own capacity while intrinsic orientation motivates students to study in their own way to improve themselves but with condition that the subject is interesting and attractive to them. However, student motivation can be directly linked to gender differences in that female students go for ICT because of employment needs while male students have extrinsic motivation. Research has based its assumption on the fact that men and women are different in the way they learn and there perception to information and learning materials. In cases where methods and materials of learning and assessment are not tailored to fit the evident differences between men and women in the learning environment, performances vary in broad way. This is due to the fact that men prefer multiple-choice questions while women prefer essays and coursework. Learnin g institutions have therefore introduced a variety of assessment methods that accommodate both men and women. However, learning materials could not be changed to accommodate both genders due to the need of content preservation. Introduction of e-learning has seen improved satisfaction and performance of both men and women although men proved to be more interested than women leading to gender inequality in the long run as students get enrolled into ICT tertiary education and profession. Female students are less satisfied with the introduction of computers in learning than their male counterparts are although they perform better in areas where presentation and verbal skills are applied. In general, women are under-represented in ICT professions and education due to the fact that women identify job security and flexibility of working hours as a motivator while men are attracted and motivated by technology and advancement in the ICT sector.Advertising We will write a custom asse ssment sample on Gender and ICT (Information and Communication Technology) Programs specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Summary: Article 2 ICT professions and programs have been lately under-represented by women due to women’s voluntary rejection of ICT despite its the continuous integration into everyday life situations. The industry is facing shortage of qualified ICT personnel with continued reduction of female students who choose ICT as a career choice because of sociocultural influences that shape perceptions about ICT between men and women. The sociocultural influences are linked to specific societies where women are under-represented in ICT due to gender stereotypes, unlike other countries where there is gender balance in the industry. Moreover, gender stereotypes learnt through media, home, and school environment influences perceptions and success expectations of female individuals who could possibly venture into ICT. However, st ereotypes can be modified over time as people grow up and belief that there are no roles linked particularly to masculinity or femininity. The perception that entry into the ICT industry is for economic power and high level of education with technical expertise where girls tend to generally dislike difficult problems and failures linked to ICT. However, the dislikes are as a result girls being imparted stereotypical attitudes by the society and media. Due to the stereotypes, women believe that their success in ICT is by chance and hard work, unlike men who attribute their success in ICT to natural ability. Moreover, women may believe that their failure in ICT is particularly due to their inability. Initiatives such as scholarships to women in ICT have led to further problems since they believe they are selected for the programs due to there gender and not ability. Perception of long working hours in isolation, technical skills, and mathematical abilities of ICT, jobs as fit for men have also contributed to under-representation of women in the industry. Media has also had significant impact on gender stereotypes through programs that depict men as computer programmers and developers, with women as mere users of computer who cannot match men’s technical ability due to genetic makeup. There have been significantly few programs that depict women as ICT professions, unlike the programs that depict women in powerful positions that were previously male dominated. Most ICT magazines show male workers and women being assisted by men in computer work thus negative perceptions to girls. Gender inequality in ICT can be linked to the fact that women and girls do not have female role models in the ICT field.Advertising Looking for assessment on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Evaluations of Article 1 and 2 Article one Article two Relevance The articles analysis of ICT programmes in universities is relevant to gender although mathematics has no relevance to gender inequality in ICT profession and education. Information on gender stereotypes imparted to girls by sociocultural influences is relevant and directly impacts on female under-representation in information and communication technology industry Reliability The analysis is less reliable in concluding that interests and concentration of the girl child on mathematics during lower level of education such as secondary schools has contributed to under-representation in ICT sector. Information is reliable due to the proof that there is gender balance in specific countries such as Portugal and Spain that have positive perception of equal ability between men and women in all fields. Women are equally represented in ICT. Accuracy The information is not accurate since there was no direct relation be tween performance of girls in ICT programmes and mathematics with tertiary enrolment and career choices in ICT The research is more accurate since there was direct proportionality between sociocultural influences and career choices made by women and girls. Lack of Bias The research is not biased to any specific findings. Gender inequality is attributed to varying reasons such as retention, recruitment, and advancement of women in ICT. The information and conclusion of the research is biased to one aspect of gender stereotype although there are a variety of factors contributing to under-representation of women in male dominated fields such as ICT. Completeness The information and research is not complete, as the conclusion does not pinpoint gender inequality to a specific cause. Research and information is complete since female under-representation in information and communication technology is attributed to negative perceptions on women’s ability in male dominated areas. Up-to-date The research is up-to-date as the estimates and women’s opinions represent data for 2006 and 2007. Research isn’t up-to-date since data used was from past researchers and evidence from sociocultural practices that have been there. Reference List Anderson, B., 2007. Information and communication technologies in societies: e-living in a digital. London: Taylor Francis. Buskens, I. Webb, A., 2009. African women and ICT: investigating technology, gender and empowerment, London: IDRC.

James McPherson - Civil War James McPherson - Army of the Tennessee

James McPherson - Civil War James McPherson - Army of the Tennessee James McPherson - Early Life Career: James Birdseye McPherson was born November 14, 1828, near Clyde, Ohio. The son of William and Cynthia Russell McPherson, he worked on the familys farm and aided with his fathers blacksmith business. When he was thirteen, McPhersons father, who had a history of mental illness, became unable to work. To aid the family, McPherson took a job at a store run by Robert Smith. An avid reader, he worked in this position until he was nineteen when Smith aided him in obtaining an appointment to West Point. Rather than immediately enroll, he deferred his acceptance and took two years of preparatory study at Norwalk Academy. Arriving at West Point in 1849, he was in the same class as Philip Sheridan, John M. Schofield, and John Bell Hood. A gifted student, he graduated first (of 52) in the Class of 1853. Though posted to the Army Corps of Engineers, McPherson was retained at West Point for a year to serve as an Assistant Professor of Practical Engineering. Completing his teaching assignment, he next was ordered to aid in improving New York Harbor. In 1857, McPherson was transferred to San Francisco to work on improving fortifications in the area. James McPherson - The Civil War Begins: With the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 and the beginning of the secession crisis, McPherson declared that he wished to fight for the Union. As the Civil War began in April 1861, he realized that his career would be best served if he returned east. Asking for a transfer, he received orders to report to Boston for service in the Corps of Engineers as a captain. Though an improvement, McPherson desired to serve with one of the Union armies then forming. In November 1861, he wrote to Major General Henry W. Halleck and requested a position on his staff. James McPherson - Joining with Grant: This was accepted and McPherson traveled to St. Louis. Arriving, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and assigned as chief engineer on the staff of Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant. In February 1862, McPherson was with Grants army when it captured Fort Henry and played a key role in deploying Union forces for the Battle of Fort Donelson a few days later. McPherson again saw action in April during the Union victory at the Battle of Shiloh. Impressed with the young officer, Grant had him promoted to brigadier general in May. James McPherson - Rising through the Ranks: That fall saw McPherson in command of an infantry brigade during the campaigns around Corinth and Iuka, MS. Again performing well, he received a promotion to major general on October 8, 1862. In December, Grants Army of the Tennessee was reorganized and McPherson received command of XVII Corps. In this role, McPherson played a key part in Grants campaign against Vicksburg, MS in late 1862 and 1863. In the course of the campaign, he took part in victories at Raymond (May 12), Jackson (May 14), Champion Hill (May 16), and the Siege of Vicksburg (May 18-July 4). James McPherson - Leading the Army of the Tennessee: In the months following the victory at Vicksburg, McPherson remained in Mississippi conducting minor operations against the Confederates in the area. As a result, he did not travel with Grant and part of the Army of the Tennessee to relieve the siege of Chattanooga. In March 1864, Grant was ordered east to take overall command of Union forces. In reorganizing the armies in the West, he directed that McPherson be made commander of the Army of the Tennessee on March 12, replacing Major General William T. Sherman, who was promoted to command all Union forces in region. Commencing his campaign against Atlanta in early May, Sherman moved through northern Georgia with three armies. While McPherson advanced on the right, Major General George H. Thomas Army of the Cumberland formed the center while Major General John Schofields Army of the Ohio marched on the Union left. Confronted by General Joseph E. Johnstons strong position at Rocky Face Ridge and Dalton, Sherman dispatched McPherson south to Snake Creek Gap. From this undefended gap, he was to strike at Resaca and sever the railroad which was supplying the Confederates to the north. Emerging from the gap on May 9, McPherson became concerned that Johnston would move south and cut him off. As a result, he withdrew to the gap and failed to take Resaca despite the fact the city was lightly defended. Moving south with the bulk of Union forces, Sherman engaged Johnston at the Battle of Resaca on May 13-15. Largely inconclusive, Sherman later blamed McPhersons cautiousness on May 9 for preventing a great Union victory. As Sherman maneuvered Johnston south, McPhersons army took part in the defeat at Kennesaw Mountain on June 27. James McPherson - Final Actions: Despite the defeat, Sherman continued to press south and crossed the Chattahoochee River. Nearing Atlanta, he intended to attack the city from three directions with Thomas pushing in from the north, Schofield from the northeast, and McPherson from the east. Confederate forces, now led by McPhersons classmate Hood, attacked Thomas at Peachtree Creek on July 20 and were turned back. Two days later, Hood planned to attack McPherson as the Army of the Tennessee approached from the east. Learning that McPhersons left flank was exposed, he directed Lieutenant General William Hardees corps and cavalry to attack. Meeting with Sherman, McPherson heard the sound of fighting as Major General Grenville Dodges XVI Corps worked to halt this Confederate assault in what became known as the Battle of Atlanta. Riding to the sound of the guns, with only his orderly as an escort, he entered a gap between Dodges XVI Corps and Major General Francis P. Blairs XVII Corps. As he advanced, a line of Confederate skirmishers appeared and ordered him to halt. Refusing, McPherson turned his horse and tried to flee. Opening fire, the Confederates killed him as he tried to escape. Beloved by his men, McPhersons death was mourned by leaders on both sides. Sherman, who considered McPherson a friend, wept upon learning of his death and later wrote his wife, McPhersons death was a great loss to me. I depended much on him. Upon learning of the death of his protà ©gà ©, Grant was also moved to tears. Across the lines, McPhersons classmate Hood penned, I will record the death of my classmate and boyhood friend, General James B. McPherson, the announcement of which caused me sincere sorrow...the attachment formed in early youth was strengthened by my admiration and gratitude for his conduct toward our people in the vicinity of Vicksburg. The second highest ranking Union officer killed in combat (behind Major General John Sedgwick), McPhersons body was recovered and returned to Ohio for burial. Selected Sources Sherman Loses his Right Bower by Wayne BengstonCivil War Trust: James McPherson Major General James B. McPherson